Four Major Theories of Child Development
By: Beth Haynes
ECE 730: Issues in Developmental Theory in Early Childhood Education The University of Alabama at Birmingham
This blog will explore four major theories of human development specifically in relation to child development. These major theories or “grand theories” as defined by sociologists, are those that have withstood the test of time and are considered foundational theories on which other theories are based. The four main theories examined are the Freud’s Psychosexual Theory, Erickson’s Psychosocial Theory, Vygotsky’s Developmental Theory, and Piaget’s Cognitive Theory.
Comparisons will be explored by outlining the overall theories and more directly how each has shaped child development. The implications for caregivers and early childhood education will be examined in connection to each theory.
Lastly, the theories will be compared in terms of “goodness” or fitness as defined six of fourteen standards defined by R. Murray Thomas’ Standards of Comparison in his book Comparing Theories of Child Development (Thomas, 2005).
Thomas’ Six Standards of Comparison
These include the following six characteristics from Thomas’ fourteens standards*:
1). It accurately reflects the facts of the real-world child.
2). It is stated in a way that makes it clearly understandable.
3). It explains past events and predicts future events.
4). It offers practical guidance in solving daily problems of child rearing to people responsible for the welfare of children.
5). It is internally consistent.
6), It is economical in the sense that is founded on as few unproven assumptions as possible and requires the simplest possible mechanisms to explain it.
*Taken from Thomas, R. M. (2005). Comparing theories of child development. (6th ed).
Defining Theories, Frameworks, Models, and Paradigms
A theory can be defined in many ways. In his book Comparing Theories of Child Development, Thomas (2005) attempts to synthesize different author’s views of what a theory is and ultimately, he defines it as “an explanation of how facts fit together” (Thomas, 2005). By taking data from observations and measurements, a theory can be developed to explain the relationship between the data and determine which relationships are most significant in developing understanding (Thomas, 2005). In child development, theories help determine what relationship between facts exists and which are most important for understanding children. Theories can provide a structural understanding by establishing a classification system such as the stages or steps as seen in many theories in child development (Thomas, 2005). Additionally, causal relationships examine cause and effect. This is particularly important in child development as it provides an in-depth investigation into the effects of heredity and environment on development (Thomas, 2005). A metatheory uses the term “meta” to describe how one thinks about a theory (Thomas, 2005). “Meta” is traditionally used to as a prefix that means “an analysis of” or “knowledge about” (Thomas, 2005). Metatheories attempt to break down or analyze a theory by examining what the theory encompasses and how it is used in a particular discipline (Thomas, 2005).
Other terms to explore when discussing theories include framework, model, and paradigm. A framework is more general as it provides a set of guidelines or recommendations used to guide the focus and elements of composition within a discipline (Aldridge & Kirylo, 2019). In child development, a framework is typically used to describe a defining set of guidelines or principles used to guide the development of curriculum and instruction (Aldridge et al., 2006). These can be defined by a specific professional organization or group of associates to direct and provide instruction that is in line with particular theories or beliefs (Aldridge & Kirylo, 2019). In this way, many theories and models can be considered in developing a set of standards that guide curriculum and program implementation that is aligned with the defined framework.
A model can be used to describe a relationship among variables or can be used to explore a worldview that investigates the nature of people (Thomas, 2005). Authors use a model in broad or definitive terms giving it a slightly different meaning based on the discipline in which it is used and what it is being used to describe. Aldridge and Kirylo, (2019) define a model as a “closed system” in which outside information is not considered and characterize it as behaviorist in theory when used in relation to curriculum (Aldridge & Kirylo, 2019). Furthermore, models tend to be defined as a framework in which there is only a slight amount of variation allowed regardless of context (Aldridge et al., 2006). However, Thomas defines a model in a broader sense stating it is a “scheme used to describe relationships among variables or facts in child development” (Thomas, 2005). However, models used for curriculum purposes tend to be very explicit and rigid. Models rarely provide space for adaptation or modification within the specific criteria identified by the curriculum (Aldridge & Kirylo, 2019).
A paradigm is used broadly in a similar way to describe a general framework and overall viewpoint or worldview. However, some authors will use a paradigm to describe a “specific description of a relationship between variables” (Thomas, 2005). In this way, a paradigm and a model are often used interchangeably. However, a paradigm is generally considered to be more general in nature when describing relationships among variables in child development even though authors in various disciplines use the term differently (Thomas, 2005). Additionally, paradigms tend to shift and change over time. Thomas Kuhn, author of The Structure of the Scientific Revolutions, studies paradigms in relation to science (Thomas, 2005). Kuhn describes a paradigm as a constant that shifts when existing theories can no longer explain a specific phenomenon or a new theory is introduced (McLeod, 2020). This paradigm shift can bring opportunities for the development of new theories and expansion of existing theories to accommodate new ways of thinking (McLeod, 2020). Additionally, new models can be developed to account for the shift or new theory providing an opportunity to incorporate new data and research in applicable ways (McLeod, 2020).
The Psychosexual Theory
Austrian neurologist Sigmund Freud developed the Psychosexual Theory. His interest and research led him to develop several theories including the levels of consciousness, the psychic apparatus, and the psychosexual stages of child development (Thomas, 2005). Though Freud’s theories were widely rejected when introduced in the United States during the early 20th century, they gained recognition in both the fields of psychology and human development in the 1950’s (Thomas, 1999). Although primarily used in the fields of psychology and psychiatry, Freud’s theories examine how personality develops in young children and how they learn to regulate behavior and adapt to social norms.
Freud believed that the central role of human behavior is derived from the motivation of the unconscious mind. Further study revealed that repressed feelings can greatly influence human personality and actions. These inborn behaviors were found to sometimes be neurotic or compulsive behaviors deemed as unhealthy when expressed in the real world (Thomas, 1999). Through accessing the unconscious mind in a relaxed state, Freud could examine thoughts for themes and problems which might be repressed. Another method he used was dream analysis in which he asked patients to recount their dreams. He analyzed these for unresolved conflicts as he thought the mind tried to work out problems through the dream state (Thomas, 2005).
Both methods served as sources for data from childhood in which he constructed the models of development (Thomas, 2005). Furthermore, Freud concluded that agents in a child’s environment monitor what is considered acceptable and unacceptable behavior in fulfilling these motivations or needs. These agents may be parents, teachers, or other authority figures in a child’s life who shape a child’s views of the world through approval or disapproval (Thomas, 1999).
In order to understand the Stages of Psychosexual Development, one must first grasp the levels of consciousness. These levels serve as the components that interact with the world or the agents in a person’s environment to determine behavior (Thomas, 1999). However, it is important to note that in childhood these three levels do not operate at the same times as these develop over the course of a child’s growth (Thomas, 1999). Freud describe these as the id, ego, and superego. The id is the first to emerge as it is present at birth. The ego develops as an infant works to satisfy their needs within the environment and development into early childhood. The superego develops much later as a person interacts and interprets rules of the environment (Thomas, 1999).
A key component seen in the id is instinct. Instinct is the inborn factor that gives force and direction to all actions in the unconscious (Thomas, 1999). Each force is motivated by an energy source that is constructive or destructive which Freud refers to as the “life or death instinct” needed for survival (Thomas, 2005). Libido is the energy force for life and serves protect from the destructive death instinct (Thomas, 1999). The id operates as the pleasure principle through this drive of instinct. The infant’s goal is to fulfill its own needs without awareness of others or its environment (Thomas, 2005). This primary process is innately present at birth and seeks to survive while avoiding unpleasantness and pain (Thomas, 1999). As an infant grows and develops, the ego serves as the reality principle and decision maker for wants and needs. Serving as a negotiator and problem solver, the ego assesses the id’s needs and determines ways to fulfill these through the environment in this developed secondary process (Thomas, 2005). As a child mature and develops, the superego emerges.
Freud believed the development of personality or psyche of a child is influenced by their need to expend sexual energy from one stage of development to the next. These five major stages of Psychosexual Development are: Oral (ages 0-1), Anal (ages 2-3), Infantile-genital (ages 3-4 or so), Latency (ages 4-5 to puberty), and Mature-genital (mid-teens to adulthood). The stages are used to explain childhood connections to needs, wants, personality, and behaviors exhibited throughout the lifespan (Thomas, 2005). These stages overlap at times and are not seen as distinctly separate stages of development (Thomas, 1999).
The Psychosexual stages related to child development are the first through fourth stages. In the Oral stage, which occurs from birth to age one, Freud thought of infants as “dynamic energy systems” in which the drive pushed the child to seek satisfaction from its surrounding environment (Thomas, 2005). An infant’s basic needs are for food, drink, and breath to support survival. These needs are met orally by use of the mouth and are provided by caregivers within the environment primarily viewed by Freud as the mother. The child’s personality is shaped by how these needs are satisfied or neglected and the infant’s ability to persist to satisfaction (Thomas, 2005). The infant also explores the environment orally by placing objects in their mouth and later biting or chewing as a way to seek gratification (Thomas, 2005).
In the Anal stage, which occurs from ages two to three, the primary focus for control is over that of elimination of the bowels and urinary tract. By gaining control of the muscles controlling these excretory systems, a child can also determine the need and time for elimination (Thomas, 2005). This can be a time of frustration for parents as they work to help children to learn to recognize this control within themselves. Freud views this relationship between parent and child during toilet training as one that can have lasting effects on child’s personality (Thomas, 2005). Freud surmised that if a child feels valued, trusted, and loved during this training process, they will in turn learn to value, trust, and love as adults. However, if a child learns shame, guilt, and fear, this too will shape the child’s adult personality in negative ways (Thomas, 2005).
In the Infantile-genital stage, which occurs from about ages three to four, Freud concludes that a child becomes aware of their sexual organs and views these as pleasure zones in which they associate with gratification and love. Furthermore, Freud deduces that during this stage children develop relationships with parents that will shape their personality and understanding of feelings towards the opposite sex later in life. It is during this time that Freud believes a child adopts parental characteristics and traits that define how they come to know love (Thomas, 2005). This can manifest in dysfunctional ways such as the Oedipus or Electra complex in which children compete for a parent’s affection with the other parent (Thomas, 2005).
Lastly in the Latency stage, which occurs from age four to five to puberty, a child’s view of their peers and social relationships begin to play a role in development. This has a strong influence on one’s understanding of societal rules and sense of belonging within a group. Children tend to play with same sex peers and form opinions based on their interactions through games and daily activities (Thomas, 2005). Freud believed a child’s understanding of societal rules and morals developed greatly during this stage as children are greatly influenced by parents and peers in their immediate environment (Thomas, 2005).
Implications for Early Childhood Education and Parenting
Freud’s study of the developmental trends of the structures of the mind explains the roles of the conscious, preconscious, and unconscious mind in terms of drives such as instinct in relation to the outside world at different stages of development and various ages in the lifespan including in infancy and early childhood (Thomas, 2005). Additionally, cultures can vary in how they foster these stages of child development and condition the environment in which the child develops by promoting or frustrating a child’s progress in meeting these needs based on their beliefs (Thomas, 1999).
Freud also examined what he defined as defense mechanisms. These are techniques of adjustment that respond to a child’s unconscious mind and the environment’s influence on behavior. (Thomas, 2005). These defense mechanisms include repression, sublimation, regression, projection, reaction formation, compensation, rationalization, and escape (Thomas 2005). These can be seen as devious or maladaptive behaviors that present when a child has unfulfilled needs or experience trauma (Thomas, 1999). Freud further explored these in terms of neuroses and social disfunction in relation to child rearing and satisfaction through child development stages that shape how adults respond to their environment and problem solve later in life (Thomas, 1999).
The implications on child development also focus on the moral agents or adults present in a child’s life. Freud believes that infants are not born with values, attitudes, or beliefs and that these are formed by a child’s environment through influence of the moral agents in their lives (Thomas, 2005). Consequences for actions are most often manipulated or shaped by the adults in their environment. According to Freud, children are born with only two capacities which are to develop internal values and to feel good or bad when they abide by or dismiss these values (Thomas, 2005). With this belief, he determined that the superego develops out of the ego to form a child or adolescence’s moral values. Therefore, the superego acts as the rewards and punishment of moral values learned from the environment and the people in their world (Thomas, 2005).
With the acceptance of Freud’s theories as valid, Erickson chose to examine healthy development in relation to the ego and the formation of personality and more specifically how identity is formed (Thomas, 2005). He believed that growing up was a process of achieving two aspects of one’s identity which included personal recognition of self and the recognition and identification of oneself within their culture (Thomas, 2005). To better define these, he defined eight stages of Psychosocial Development in which he believed successful tasks of development were to be completed before progressing to the next stage (Mooney, 2000). Expanding on the epigenetic principle, Erikson believed that all development follows a certain pattern as determined by one’s genes as they interact with their environment (Thomas, 2005). He further concluded that human personality is also developed by steps that are genetically determined, but this personality development is influenced by the conflicts or problem-solving that occurs within the social environment during childhood and adolescent stages regardless of culture (Thomas, 2005). As a person passes through each stage, the personality is formed by the tasks or environmental influences which challenge the strengths and weaknesses of this predetermined personality (Mooney, 2000).
The eight Stages of Psychosocial Development are: Trust vs. Mistrust (0-1 year), Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (2-3 years), Initiative vs. Guilt (4-5 years), Industry vs. Inferiority (6-12 years), Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Adolescence), Intimacy vs. Solidarity and Isolation (Young Adulthood), Generativity vs. Stagnation/Self-Absorption (Middle Age), and Integrity vs. Despair and Disgust (Older Adults) (Thomas, 2005). Each stage has a crisis or struggle that is encountered between two opposing personality traits with each vying for dominance (Thomas, 2005). These conflicting traits determine a scale of personality development in which the successful or unsuccessful completion of tasks within the stage promoting a child’s learning through adaptation to their social environment (Salkind, 2004). Simply stated, a child develops a degree of each opposing personality before proceeding to the next stage. Erikson did believe that even though these developed in stages throughout one’s life, they could be recovered at a later stage if not fully developed. This was a critical component of trust, autonomy, and initiative in which he believed a child or adult could revisit a stage in order to choose a better resolution if these were not fully developed (Mooney, 2000). This is specifically important in terms of attachment, empathy, internal belief, and identity (Mooney, 2000). Additionally, virtues or strengths develop as a child moves through each stage (Mooney, 2000).
Implications for Early Childhood Education and Parenting
During the first year of life, trust develops in connection to the infants’ relationship with maternal figure or primary caregiver (Thomas, 2005). During this time, babies develop trust in self, the people in their lives, and the environment around them (Mooney, 2000). Erikson sees this development as two-fold in which babies form their beliefs about the people in their lives meeting their needs and their own ability to have their needs met by caring adults. Babies also learn to cope with circumstances influenced by their environment in which they determine what is safe and not safe (Mooney, 2000). A strong emotional bond between babies and their caregivers called attachment develops a sense of trust. However, this trust can be damaged and lead to mistrust without this strong bond (Thomas, 2005) Babies who have their needs met grow up believing the world is a safe place (Mooney, 2000). In this way, babies know that they can engage adults to meet their needs through crying, smiling, or other ways of communication (Mooney, 2000). Children who are not nurtured and do not develop strong attachments with caregivers grow up not trusting the world and lack a basic sense of trust needed to fully develop (Mooney, 2000). However, Erikson states that this can be repaired or overcome by a trustworthy social environment (Thomas, 2005). An infant that establishes a secure attitude of trust can be shaken in later years and can be damaged by the environment and experiences with significant undependable people in their lives (Thomas, 2005).
Autonomy develops in the second year as children gain control over their evacuation systems and become more able to do for themselves (Thomas, 2005). There must be balance between parental firmness and parental flexibility in allowing children to exhibit independence (Thomas, 2005) Self-esteem or maladaptive behaviors from a sense of shame such as over compulsive behavior, doubt, and withdrawal develop during this time and regression can begin to be exhibited (Thomas, 2005). Regression can include hostile and willful behavior, such as whining, thumb-sucking, bed-wetting, and demanding behavior (Thomas, 2005).
As children gain more skills in using language and exploring their world, they move towards greater independence. During the Initiative vs. Guilt stage, a child can develop feelings of guilt that dominant their consciousness if not supported and guided by loving adults (Thomas, 2005). Through understanding and nurturing relationships, children can learn to overcome feelings of self-doubt and fear especially in terms of physical and mental development (Thomas, 2005).
In the years before puberty, children are seeking to define themselves in relation to their peers. Erikson believed the role of games and make-believe play were important in the formation of self within society (Thomas, 2005). However, Erickson believed that within the Industry vs. Inferiority stage, children wanted to accomplish real work and form a sense of accomplishment through perseverance and completion of task (Thomas, 2005). It is in this stage that a child starts realizing what he or she is adept at doing in terms of tasks or work and as a result learns how he or she is viewed by their peers in relation to these accomplishments. If a child’s family life has not well prepared him for school life, he may develop a sense of inferiority (Thomas, 2005). However, a child’s potential abilities can be nurtured at a later state if nurtured or practiced.
Further implications of this theory on child development guide parents and teachers in helping children develop trust by holding them and meeting their needs when in distress (Mooney, 2000). Caregivers can support infants in attachment through significant relationships with a few important adults in the child’s world (Mooney, 2000). Supporting toddlers in separating confidently for limited amounts of time helps children develop independence and a strong sense of self (Mooney, 2000). Through holding on and letting go, toddlers struggle in a way that promotes autonomy and helps them develop a strong sense of self and self esteem (Mooney, 2000).
The Cognitive Theory
Swiss psychologist, Jean Piaget developed the Cognitive Theory as a way to explain the thinking process children used in problem-solving. His research focused greatly on how children develop knowledge and the relationship between four main variables of heredity, physical experience, social transmission, and equilibrium (Thomas, 1999). He was considered an interactionist because he believed that both heredity and environment played a distinct and critical role in development (Mooney, 2000).
Piaget believed that children construct their own knowledge by giving meaning to the people, objects, and places in their world (Mooney, 2000). He also thought that children learn best by doing the work themselves and that they could create their own understanding (Mooney, 2000). He defined development as a spontaneous process in which an individual is active in experiencing the world around them (Thomas, 2005). In this way, he defined knowledge as process in which one acts on a thing either mentally or physically (Thomas, 2005). He did not view knowledge as stored information, but as the process through which learning takes place. He believed this was fostered through the acts of doing, observing, and acting on the things within one’s environment (Mooney, 2000). For example, children learn best through real life problem solving that involves children constructing their own knowledge through their perception of the world which is based on prior knowledge or schema (Thomas, 2005). By connecting to what is already known, a child can view the world through their past experiences and his current stage of maturation or development (Thomas, 2005). In this way, two children act differently on the world because their past experiences have not been the same (Thomas, 2005).
Piaget used the clinical method of observation of problem solving in natural surroundings to collect data. He asked questions or posed problems and then observed the processes used to solve these in order to determine understanding. He also recorded the answers children gave to questions and studied not only correct answers, but also how children arrived at incorrect answers in order to better understand a child’s thinking process (Thomas, 2005). Piaget established that children move through phases of development completing each stage before moving to the next. There is a distinct break between each phase, but this is not always the same in each child (Thomas, 2005). He also saw children as active agents that go through the processes of equilibrium and disequilibrium (balance and unbalance) when problem-solving in order to achieve mastery (Salkind, 2004). He viewed equilibrium as the primary motivating force behind development (Salkind, 2004). In this way, children are actively seeking homeostasis and through disequilibrium learning takes place (Salkind, 2004).
Piaget developed the Stages of Cognitive Development. These include the following stages: Sensorimotor (Birth to age 2), Preoperational (Age 2- to age 7), Concrete Operational (Age 7 to age 11), and Formal Operational (age 11- age 15). Piaget viewed this growth is continuous from day to day through stages. However, he viewed growth and development in phases over time with distinct breaks between each phase. Piaget determined that a child must complete one stage before moving to the next stage (Thomas, 2005). All concepts he developed are connected to this basic model of intellectual growth (Thomas, 2005).
The following stages are related to child development and early childhood education. The Sensorimotor stage takes place between birth and 18 months of age. Piaget believed that babies reactions to the world were reflexive and occur without thought (Mooney, 2000). These reflexes are instinctive and help the infant adapt to the environment through the sucking reflex, crying, breathing, coughing, elimination, and gross body movement (Thomas, 2005). Babies rely on their senses to guide them during this stage. Through grasping, coordinated movements, and gross body development, infants begin displaying accommodations and assimilations based on what they have learned from their environment (Thomas, 2005). Infants can acquire knowledge through association with their environment. As a child uses their senses to explore and learn about their immediate environment, they can learn through repetitive actions and practice such as circular movements, grasping, and manipulating objects (Thomas, 2005).
Towards the end of the Sensorimotor stage, infants develop what is known as object permanence. Babies can anticipate objects and people even if they are not in their sight (Mooney, 2000). Prior to this, babies are not aware of people and objects they cannot see. However, with object permanence, infants construct the knowledge that object still exists even though it cannot be seen (Thomas, 2005). They begin to realize that a caregiver is still present even if they are not within sight (Mooney, 2000). Additionally, infants begin to recognize how objects differ from their prior schemas or mental constructs and move into a mode of discovery. (Thomas, 2005).
The Preoperational stage occurs between ages 2 and 6 or 7 years of age. During this stage, a distinct turning point of cognitive development takes place in which thought becomes a symbolic process for understanding the world in an egocentric manner (Salkind, 2004). This is a time when a child’s thinking differs most from that of older children and adults (Mooney, 2000). According to Piaget, young children in this stage view the world only as is relates to them and are unable to consider the viewpoint of others. He defines this as egocentrism (Mooney, 2000). Furthermore, children are considered concrete thinkers as they are unable to grasp abstract concepts. They can only focus on one variable at a time (Thomas, 2005). Children begin to form ideas based on their own unique perceptions and direct experiences in life (Mooney, 2000). In this way, children are extremely literal and tend to overgeneralize based on limited experiences and thought processes (Mooney, 2000).
Piaget regarded the preoperational stage as one of primary importance because of the role language played in supporting intellectual and cognitive development at this time of development (Thomas, 2005). He defined the essential functions of language as giving a child the ability to communicate which aids in promoting social development, enabling the child to develop internal speech as thoughts, and providing a way for children to develop mental images that lead to the expansion of the thought processes needed for problem solving (Thomas, 2005).
Piaget defines operations as a way of to manipulate objects in one’s environment based on characteristics and relationships (Thomas, 2005). Concrete operations are those that can be physically carried out such as by manipulating objects through sorting or moving them (Thomas, 2005). Once a child can mentally manipulate objects in order to determine relationships and characteristics, these thoughts or mental images produce what Piaget defined as formal operations (Thomas, 2005). These operations can be in the form of thoughts and mental manipulations of objects when internalized (Thomas, 2005).
The Concrete Operational stage takes place between ages 6 years to 11 or 12 years of age. This stage is applicable to the development of older children and preadolescence. However, it is important to realize the shift in thought processes that place in moving into concrete thought in which a child forms mental images for manipulating and problem solving (Thomas, 2005). Thought processes become more logical in nature and children are able to develop ideas based on reasoning (Salkind, 2004). Although the thinking process is still restricted to mentally manipulating objects and limited perceptions (Thomas, 2005), children can begin to understand more about their environment in terms of operations, conservation, classification, and seriation (Salkind, 2005). A child moves from egocentric to sociocentric in which they are able to understand viewpoints and perspectives beyond their own (Salkind, 2005).
The last stage Formal Operational, but this takes place after age 12 and is not directly related to young children. During this stage, children begin to think conceptually and hypothetically by using abstract thought processes that were not possible in earlier stages (Thomas, 2005).
Implications for Early Childhood Education and Parenting
The influences of Piaget’s methods are known worldwide and can be seen in many early childhood settings and environments. Additionally, his writings are widely used as a model for constructivist approaches that vary greatly from traditional teaching methods (Thomas, 2005). The Piagetian model has been applied to many areas of early childhood education though choice of learning objectives, curriculum sequencing, grade placement of topics, assessment of children’s intellectual functioning, teaching methodology (Thomas, 2005).
Early childhood educators focus on using best practices in curriculum selection that promote the acquisition of skills, knowledge, and values that prepare children to be well-adjusted, “constructive” members of society (Thomas, 2005). The focus of educational practices is on promoting the development of the whole child in the sense that achievement helps a child develop into an adult that can fulfill their own personal needs within an evolving society (Thomas, 2005). These interactions support a child’s ability to construct knowledge of the physical world while also developing knowledge of the social environment. Using the Piagetian theory, the model or educational approach focuses on promoting optimal development for thinking skills, problem solving, communicating, and interacting with the environment in successful ways (Thomas, 2005). Less focus is given to learning facts and concepts (Thomas, 2005) as children are allowed to explore the environment and objects within the environment in order to construct knowledge based on their own schema. In this way children are given more freedom of choice and opportunities to freely explore manipulatives, tactile materials, expressive mediums, and creative play.
Play and social interactions are valued as ways to help children build on existing schema, promote language and cognitive development, and support learning through experimentation with objects and creative expression. Learning is considered a process in which children become active learners in constructing their own knowledge through play and experiencing real-life situations through interaction with the environment and the people around them.
The Developmental Theory
During Lev Vygotsky’s short life, his work focused on the study of psychology, education, and psychopathology in the post-World War II Soviet Union. He developed many theories in child development that are stilled widely recognized (Thomas, 2005). His work, developed within the Marxist principles prominent in the Soviet Union that time, stated that all basic intellectual skills and cognitive abilities are not innately inherited, but are learned through practice and influenced by the social environment in which a child grows up (Thomas, 2005). Children learn through “transmission of knowledge” through words, with language playing a critical role in learning (Thomas, 2005).
Vygotsky’s work and research, particularly the Theory of the Zone of Proximal Development, is still highly regarded worldwide as a basic theory of child development from the developmental perspective (Thomas, 2005). Vygotsky viewed language as a tool for thinking and learning. Applying the Marxist principal that actions create thought, he adapted the concept of society in which thesis and antithesis equals synthesis and applied this same concept to child development (Thomas, 2005). He maintained that children experience thesis and antitheses through everyday activities. This struggle in resolving the conflict and resolution in their lives facilitated problem-solving which promoted learning (Thomas, 2005). Using language as a tool for learning and by supporting problem-solving capabilities, Vygotsky believed that adults and older peers provided opportunities for children to function within a level of actual development and a level of possible development. He defined this area or zone in which learning takes place as the Zone of Proximal Development.
He also believed that one’s cultural-historical view of the past as a key to understanding the future (Thomas, 2005). In applying this to child development, he proposed that in order to understand how and why children develop, we must also examine the nature of children’s unique historical and cultural influences. Additionally, a child’s past successes and failures in problem-solving and conflict resolution determines how prepared a child is to resolve future conflicts (Thomas, 2005).
The basis of Vygotsky’s research techniques focused on his interest in wanting to know the child’s process for constructing a thought or problem-solving. Studying Piaget’s clinical setting method of observing child in their natural environment, he developed his own method called the double-stimulation method which were loosely based experiments by Janet and Gesalt (Thomas 2005). Children were placed in a natural setting in for problem-solving and provided with carefully chosen objects to explore (Thomas, 2005). The child was either given a goal to accomplish or was given time to explore the objects to infer the desired task (Thomas, 2005). The experimenter observed how the child acted and the thought processes used while tracking this as well as what the child said during the task. (Thomas, 2005). From this, researchers could conclude how the child’s experiences and past knowledge led to problem resolution (Thomas, 2005).
Implications for Early Childhood Education and Parenting
An implication for child development is the Zone of Proximal Development in which a child's development defines their learning readiness. Learning occurs in a "zone" or area of development that is between the child's actual level of development and the child's level of potential development (Thomas, 2005). Potential development level is determined through problem-solving with guidance from adults and more advanced peers called scaffolding (Thomas, 2005). This defines the level of maturity based on a child's current ability and potential ability with maturation (Thomas, 2005).
Vygotsky advanced the Developmental Theory in response to the sociopolitical goals of the post-World War II society in the Soviet Union. Therefore, it is regarded as a means to create a “utopian society” in the view of Marxist principles. Vygotsky viewed child development as a method to improve society and develop solutions to problems by supporting basic development beginning at birth (Thomas, 2005). In terms of child development and what was appropriate developmentally, Vygotsky determined that learning could take place through the actual level of development which was established through Piagetian type tasks completion (Thomas, 2005). However, he maintained that true learning came through the “in between” stage which he called the Zone of Proximal Development in which he determined occurred before the next level of potential learning for children.
In this theory, he concluded that the area between the actual level of development and the proximal level of development could be supported or scaffolded by adults and capable peers to promote problem solving and learning (Thomas, 2005). Through the process of maturation, the levels of development increase and the scaffolding changes based on the individual needs of the child. This view of learning readiness has greatly influenced educators (Thomas, 2005) and supports the instructional model of differentiated instruction within the classroom. This model supports individualize learning and a level of mastery that is appropriate for the child.
Fitness of Theories as Determined by Thomas’ Standards of Comparison
Each of these theories have held firm as “good” or “grand” theories. Murray Thomas assesses theories by using a set of standards he defines as Standards of Comparison in his book Comparing Theories of Child Development (Thomas, 2005). These include fourteen standards of fitness or “goodness” that he uses to examine theories by common standards of judgement (Thomas, 2005). In this meta-analysis, six of these standards will be used to compare the four theories of child development presented. The six standards of fitness used are the following: 1). The theory reflects the real world of children, 2.) The theory is clearly understandable, 3.) The theory explains the past and predicts the future, 4.) The theory guides child rearing, 5.) The theory is internally consistent, and 6.) The theory is economical. (Thomas, 2005).
As seen in the table below, a numerical value was assigned to each ranking for Thomas' indicators. An average score was determined based on the rankings and a fitness score was determined for each in reference to the indicators. All four theories ranked between 5 and 6 giving them approximately the same score of fitness based on 6 of Thomas' Standards of Comparison. This ranks each theory as "well' to "very well" based on 6 areas of the common standards of judgment. The Developmental Theory scored highest at 5.83. The Cognitive Theory scored next to highest at 5.50. The Psychosocial Theory scored third at 5.33. The Psychosexual theory scored last at 5.16.
Four Theories in Relationship to Murray Thomas’ Six Standards of Comparison
Continuum of Fitness Based on Thomas’ Indicator Standards for Comparison | |||||||
| Wellness | Midpoint | Poorness | ||||
Ranking | Extremely Well | Very Well | Well | Moderately Well | Poorly | Very Poorly | Extremely Poorly |
Numeric Value | 7 | 6 | 5 | 4 | 3 | 2 | 1 |
Note: In order to provide more clarity to Thomas’ Standards, the continuum above provides a balanced ranking of fitness based on criteria defined by Thomas in his book Comparing theories of child development. The Continuum of Fitness is based on Thomas’ charts and assessments of fitness found within the text. “Extremely Well” is the highest ranking with “Moderately Well” as the midpoint and “Extremely Poorly” as the lowest ranking. Numeric values of 1-7 assigned indicate “7” as the highest ranking with “4” as the midpoint and “1” as the lowest ranking. The “Fitness Score” is calculated by assigning numeric value to each fitness ranking and taking the average score of the six fitness indicators. Developed using the Standards of Comparison from Comparing theories of child development, M. Thomas, Copyright 2005.
The Four Theories in Relation to Thomas’ Six Standards of Comparison
Standards | The Psychosexual Theory | The Psychosocial Theory | The Developmental Theory | The Cognitive Theory |
1. Reflects the real world of children | Well | Very Well | Very Well | Very Well |
2. Is clearly understandable | Moderately Well | Moderately Well | Extremely Well | Moderately Well |
3. Explains the past and predicts the future | Very Well | Very Well | Moderately Well | Well |
4. Guides child rearing | Very Well | Very Well | Moderately Well | Well |
5. Is internally consistent | Well | Well | Extremely Well | Extremely Well |
6. Is economical | Well | Well | Moderately Well | Extremely Well |
Average Fitness Score: | 5.16 | 5.33 | 5.83 | 5.50 |
Note: Adapted and expanded from The Standards of Comparison developed by Murray Thomas, 2005. Comparing theories of child development by R. M. Thomas. Copyright 2005.
References
- Aldridge, J., Emfinger, K., & Martin, K. (2006). Curriculum frameworks, approaches, and models in early childhood education: What’s the difference? Focus on Education, 7(2), 3- 7.
- Aldridge, J., Kilgo, J., & Jepkemboi, G. (2014). Before and beyond psychoanalysis: Anna Freud as educator. Case Study Journal, 3(3), 18-28.
- Aldridge, J. & Kirylo, J. D. (2019). A turning point in teacher education: A time for resistance, reflection, and change. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers.
- McLeod, S. A. (2020). Thomas Kuhn- Science as a paradigm. Simply Psychology. Retrieved from www.simplypsychology.org/Kuhn-paradigm.html.
- Mooney, C. G. (2000). Theories of childhood: An introduction to Dewey, Montessori, Erickson, Piaget, & Vygotsky.Redleaf Publishing
- Salkind, N. J. (2004). Introductions to theories of human development. Sage Publications.
- Thomas, R. M. (2005). Comparing theories of child development. (6th ed). Wadsworth.
- Thomas, R. M. (1999). Human development theories: Windows on culture. Sage Publications.
